Thursday, 24 October 2013
Friday, 18 October 2013
Blog # 2, Enviro 2000.
Section 6: The Historical Roots of
our Ecological Crisis: Lynn White Jr.
1. Summary 2. What is the “purpose” of
nature?
1) The
religion of Christianity uses symbolism to describe our anthropogenic disconnection
from nature by devaluing the fundamental principles of ecological evolution. By
perceiving time as a linear event, Christianity fails to acknowledge the
cyclical patterns of nature, ultimately discrediting the potential for science
to define life as a continual, and gradual process. This omnipotent religious mentality
encourages individuals to exploit nature, regardless of the ecological
consequences. The advent of scientific technology has changed our anthropocentric
perception of democracy, agriculture and development.
2)
According to Lynn White Jr. the “purpose” of nature in the Christian religion
is to reveal God’s omnipotence through allegorical representations of
anthropomorphic experiences, providing humans with the power to exploit nature
as an assertion of their supreme dominance.
Section 4: A Sand Country Almanac:
Aldo Leopold
1. Summary 2. What is the basic lesson of
Aldo Leopold’s “Thinking Like a Mountain”?
1) The
German zoologist Ernst Haeckel coined the term ecology in 1866, deriving from
the Greek word oikos, meaning
“household” having the same origin as economics[1].
In 1935 Leopold developed the philosophy of land ethics to encompass an
ecocentric perspective of biotic and abiotic interconnected relationships. The
land ethics argument is deeply rooted in environmental integrity and should be
referenced when proceeding with economic development of commonly held
resources. This ecological assessment recognizes that long-term goals for sustainability
that are relevant among plants, animals, the environment and the economy.
2) The
mountain is an allegory for balance and wellbeing within an ecosystem that represents
the sociological theory suggesting, “the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts.” Leopold emphasizes that ecological integrity is inevitably linked to
successful economic development. By investing in sustainable resource
management beneficial to contemporary society as well as future generations, we
take our place on the mountain to fulfill our biotic niche. This ecocentric
perspective encompasses living organisms and the environments that influence
their development as one functioning entity, deserving of our deepest respect
and most sincere gratitude.
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| Canmore, Alberta. |
[1] Smith, Smith& Waters: Elements of Ecology:
Canadian Edition. Chapter 1. The
Nature of Ecology: History of Ecology: Ecology is Rooted in Many Scientific
Disciplines p.3.
Section 23: Summary for
Policymakers: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 1. Summary 2. What consequences can we expect
from global warming?
1) The accumulation
of carbon, methane and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere is causing ocean
acidification, rise in sea level, and melting of icecaps. The increasing
atmospheric temperature is causing hot nights, hot days, heat waves and
droughts throughout South Africa, the Mediterranean, and parts of southern Asia.
Tropical sea surface temperatures have been correlated with tropical cyclone
activity in the North Atlantic Ocean. The anthropogenic aerosols accumulating in
the stratosphere are causing the tropospheric ozone layer to deplete and solar
irradiance to increase. Most permafrost regions will experience an increase in
thaw depth while sea ice is projected to shrink in the Arctic, Antarctica and
Greenland by the end of the 21st century. The timescale required to
remove anthropogenic greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, stratosphere,
troposphere and ocean will take longer than a millennium even if emissions are
stabilized by the end of the 21st century.
2) Within
the last 200 years of anthropogenic activity, fossil fuel use has caused atmospheric
warming while industrial agriculture has caused tropospheric cooling. Ozone-forming
chemicals (nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons) contributing to
the atmospheric water vapor content are causing hot nights, hot days, heat
waves and droughts to increase throughout the Mediterranean, South Africa, and
parts of Southern Asia.
Stratospheric cooling coupled with atmospheric warming is
causing ozone layer depletion and the melting of ice formations throughout the
Arctic, Antarctica and Greenland. Solar irradiance is melting sea ice in the
Arctic, releasing carbon into the atmosphere and dissolving hydrogen into the
North Atlantic Ocean. The permafrost areas in Churchill, Manitoba are expected
to increase in thaw depth by the end of the 21st century, reducing
the habitat for organisms and individuals that require the cold climate to
survive.
A significant increase in precipitation has been observed
throughout north and South America, northern and central Asia and northern
Europe between 1900- 2005. Tropical cyclone activity circulating in the North
Atlantic Ocean was most recently observed on October 12, 2013 off the coast of
India in the town of Gopalpur where Cyclone Phailin unleashed copious amounts
of precipitation with winds gusting up at 100-120km/ hour and a storm surge of 3-meter
high waves. In wake of the storm as many as 500,000 people were told to
evacuate their homes and find relief shelters until the dangerous weather patterns
subside.
If anthropogenic emissions are stabilized by the end of the 21st
century, the amount of time required for these chemicals to be removed from the
atmosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere is predicted to be a millennium.
 |
| http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-24487130 |
Section 13: A Path to Sustainable
Energy by 2030: Mark Z. Jacobson and Mark A. Delucchi.
1. Summary 2. What is
the most effective way to cutback on greenhouse gas emissions?
1) Global
leaders have the responsibility to shift our contemporary industrial focus from
dirty fossil fuel use towards an environmentally friendly perspective of
sustainable energy. The transition away from coal and gas exploitation will
extend into commercial, industrial and transportation sectors of our global economy.
By challenging the mainstream international markets to reconsider the long-term
benefits of finite resources, carbon taxation should be used as a tool to
discourage continuation of fossil fuel use. Incentives should be awarded to
companies that are striving to encourage sustainable use of wind, water and
solar power as alternative energy practices. The reduction greenhouse gas
emissions will minimize the ecological impact of maintenance, transmission,
supply, cost of capital, and land operations throughout the world. Scientific
evidence suggests that sustainable energy can become a competitive resource as
early as 2030 if the wellbeing of human health and environmental integrity are
added into the equation of economic growth.
2) By
implementing carbon taxes on fossil fuel use, global leaders can encourage an
international reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. This reduction
strategy puts an economic value on human health, environmental integrity and
the overall wellbeing of our global resources. Positive incentives should be
respectively awarded to companies and communities that aspire to preserve
ecological integrity of commonly held resources. Sustainable development of
wind, water and solar energy will require long-distance transmission systems,
smart grids and electric cars, which should become competitive alternatives to
coal and gas by 2030 if carbon taxes are put into effect.
Activity: Rob Hopkins: Transition
to a World Without Oil: Summary
The
entire concept of economic growth is based on the supply and demand market that
is primarily concerned with fossil fuel profits instead of sustainable resource
development and ecological wellbeing. Humans of the 21st century are
experiencing a finite petroleum resource movement that is directly linked to
the consumption of fossil fuels. Our dependence on oil is measured at a
vulnerable ratio of 4:1 (barrels consumed: to those extracted). Fragile
ecosystems have been excavated and polluted, greenhouse gas emissions have
increased, ice sheets are melting and ocean acidification has caused intense
tropical storm activity throughout the North and South Atlantic Coasts. Global
leaders must take action now and redefine the concept of economic growth by
stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions to help preserve the wellbeing of the
planet for future generations.
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|
|
Blog Reflections:
1)Can parks meet it’s dual mandate
of access and protection? How can this be achieved in
Wapusk?
1) Wapusk
National Park has the ability to maintain its dual mandate of access and
protection by limiting public assess to university level research, professional
wildlife documentation and minimalistic ecotourism. Individuals with
aspirations of pursuing research at this remote location should prepare a
written entrance request letter, academic reference (preferably a university
professor with experience in the field of ecology), artist portfolio and
project goals upon completion of the work. A protection agreement ensuring
ecological sustainability of Wapusk Park will be signed, understood and
maintained by the visitor throughout their visit. The warden should charge a
small fee to the visitor for each day spent at the park. The visitor will need
to sign out at the end of their stay and fill out a review of their experience.
 | |
| National Geographic Image 2010 |
2) What future would you like to
see for the Alberta Tar Sands Project? Continue current path; stop development;
some modified continuation?
2) The
Alberta Tar Sands project is a desperate endeavor based on unethical
exploitation of resources at the cost of human health, ecological integrity and
global warming. Ecological assessments need to be added to the equation of
economic growth in order to understand the magnitude of our negative
anthropogenic actions. Air quality, soil pollution, chemical runoff into Lake
Athabasca, ecological integrity and livelihood of First Nations communities is
strong enough scientific evidence to have companies reconsider the safety
protocols and long-term consequences for extracting, refining and transporting
fossil fuels. I would like to see the Tar Sands project completely shut down in the future and properly cleaned up to restore the ecological integrity of the Boreal Forest.
 |
| http://www.funzug.com/index.php/miscellaneous/most-amazing-aerial-views.html |
Reflection on course content and
the world around you
The various levels of ecological damage
resulting from fossil fuel extraction in remote areas of the world have lead to
the victimization of economically vulnerable communities failing to be
compensated for their loss. There seems to be a pattern between minimizing
corporate responsibility to clean up the aftermath of these projects, and the
increasing wealth of these corporate giants. Ecological degradation, loss of
biodiversity, land erosion, poisonous air, polluted water, community livelihood
and decline in human health, that have all been scientifically linked to the
chemicals used within these excavation sites. We have looked at the toxic
levels of corexit in the Gulf of Mexico left by BP in 2010; the benzene (Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons) persisting since the 1989 in Alaska after the Exxon oil
spill; The Fort McMurry Tar Sands project leaking carcinogenic compounds into
Lake Athabasca since 2006; The pollution of the Niger Delta seeing over 300
spills per year. Ultimate disregard for the wellbeing of communities is an
omnipotent attitude that cannot persist. Global leaders who ignore science are
not fit to lead, and Stephan Harper needs to reconsider his plan to ignore the
scientific reality of our 21st: people are dying because of these
toxic chemicals, oil is disappearing, and we need to transition from this
finite resource to an ecological and economically sustainable energy source by
2030 to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions.
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| http://www.hope-project.org/energy/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-solar-panels/ |
Tuesday, 24 September 2013
Blog #1, Enviro 2000.
Section 38.
Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed.
3. How do the choices of people (individually and as societies)
affect whether a society collapses due to environmental damage?
The human population has been accelerating
at such a rapid rate that the impact of our daily anthropogenic actions are
constantly compromising the earth’s finite resources through pollution,
deforestation, overfishing, overhunting, and soil problems (including erosion,
salinization, and soil fertility losses). Other serious environmental issues induced
by humans include water management, effects of introduced species on native
species, and increased per capita impact of people[1]. Within
the animal kingdom successful communities are known to have mutualistic
relationships with their ecological neighbors depending on the type of benefit,
degree of dependency, specificity, and duration[2]. The
majority of contemporary societies living within urban communities are failing
to participate as mutualistic beings within their given ecosystems. This disconnection
from Mother Nature has “upset the balance[3]”
by destroying our precious resources and denying responsibility for our actions.
Selfish leaders who fail to cooperate as mutualistic beings are exhibiting
symptoms of intraspecific competition[4] where
they take on the role of dominant individuals who claim and abuse the earths
resources while denying protection rights emphasized by environmentalists.
Humans have developed this superior mentality throughout the course of evolution
by exploiting resources as a negligent excuse for economic growth. “The economy
is not a force of nature or some kind of immutable, infallible entity. We
created it[5]” and
this arbitrary system has now become a reflection of our unsustainable resource
acquisition habits. As the earth continues to suffer from human exploitation we
watch as the severity of storms and extreme temperatures continue to increase ultimately
affecting the well being of our Mother Earth as well as own human health because
“everything in nature is interconnected.[6]” Politicians
who reject science are not fit to lead[7]
and perhaps we, as an ecological species are doomed to become either physically
or spiritually extinct as a result of our insatiable hunger for economic growth
at the expense of our devolution. As the Cree prophecy warns, “only after the
last tree has been cut down, only after the last river has been poisoned, only
after the last fish has been caught, only then will you find that money cannot
be eaten.”
Section 35. Human Carrying Capacity
1. What is carrying capacity?
Carrying
capacity is the maximum population size that can be sustained in a given
environment typically limited by the resources available during the most
unfavorable period[8]. Populations
do not increase indefinitely. As resources become limiting, birthrate decreases
and/or mortality increases, slowing growth. At very low density, positive
feedback associated with the Allee effect can drive a population to local
extinction[9].
Humans are exclusively responsible for consuming excessive amounts of resources
faster than the earth can replace them and this is a primary concern for the
long-term sustainability of the earth’s resources. Within the last hundred
years humans have become extremely dependent upon fossil fuels. Consequently
this resource has reached its peak and is now declining. The decrease of our
global oil supply has been reinforced by the general cost increase of oil
within the last 50 years, exploiting the tar sands in Canada, as well as the
American drilling boom that desperately sent companies such as Shell and BP looking
for reserves offshore throughout the world[10].
The American dream is about to expire leaving our entire human civilization at
a carrying capacity of 6 billion (and growing) with a serious addiction to
cheap oil that in its absence could trigger an economic and cultural depression.
International governments are now facing economic, agricultural, and industrial
challenges that have lead to innovative alternative energy and resource
management strategies. “Along with protecting clean water supplies and human
health, addressing climate change will strengthen the economy. An analysis
conducted in 2010 by the Western Climate Initiative showed that addressing
climate change and fostering clean-energy solutions could lead to cost savings
of about US100 billion by 2020 for the initiative’s member states and provinces[11].”
This economic scenario must be taken into serious consideration if humans hope
to sustain the overall wellbeing of our growing population and the planet to
which we all belong.
Section 7. The
Tragedy of the Commons
2. List some
examples of resources held in common by all the citizens of society that have
suffered by overuse.
The
year is 2013 and our civilization has become extremely addicted to fossil
fuels. As the world watches our global oil supply disappear due to extreme
exploitation we will need to seriously consider sustainable alternatives for
the long road ahead in a world without petroleum products. Urban communities
casually pollute the atmosphere with cheap fuel while the clock continues to
tick towards midnight. Monsanto quietly injects its genetically modified
organisms with Agent Orange, BT toxin and Bovine Growth Hormones while
consumers continue to be sedated by their chemicals. Monocrops and large-scale
farms are preventing plants from reproducing by means of natural selection,
which is how organisms develop resistant genetics that are linked to
environmental variation. Our oceans have become dumping grounds for the garbage
that humans fail to recycle and as a result leak harmful toxins into the food
supply of fish that omnivores regularly ingest. Instead of considering
sustainable fibers like hemp and bamboo as alternatives to industrial materials
we pursue cotton and polyester, which require harsh chemical processes to
purify the material.
Clean air,
clean water, forests and fertile soil are four of the most essential resources
that our planet naturally provides for all living organisms. Each living
individual requires specific minerals and nutrients to survive that often overlap
the requirements of others. Contemporary civilizations should be consciously
striving to maintain healthy relationships with their ecosystems in order to understand
the vital connection we share with the earth. In reality humans have been
exploiting the majority of our shared global resources, which has become a
contemporary cultural norm. Our destructive behavior has led to pollution, over
fishing, over hunting, clear cutting, mining, as well as oil and gas
development. Habitat destruction is one of the major negative impacts of modern
civilization’s progress. These ecological issues are at the heart of our environmental
battle between ecocentrism and anthropocentrism. Unfortunately our social system rewards selfish intraspecific competition so that people will continue to
disconnect from the earth both physically and spiritually with each
new generation. On September 12th, 1975 Pink Floyd released the album
with the self-titled track Wish You Were Here. Thirty eight years later that
song still successfully conveys a strong premonition about the state of depression
that humans have self-induced at the expense of our own devolution from the
natural world into a dystopia of temporary satisfaction and serious environmental
consequences:
“So, so you think you can tell Heaven
from Hell, blue skies from pain. Can you tell a green field from a cold steel
rail? A smile from a veil? Do you think you can tell? Did they get you to trade
your heroes for ghosts? Hot ashes for trees? Hot air for a cool breeze? Cold
comfort for change? Did you exchange a walk on part in the war for a lead role
in a cage?”
Activity:
Spend 1 hour in silence with nature.
On Saturday September
14th my friends and I took a day trip out to Winnipeg Beach to enjoy
the last fleeting moments of summer. As we walked down the dirt road towards
the boardwalk the wind chased us, rustling the leaves, stirring up the water
and scenting the air with an autumn undertone. The strength of the wind was
changing the oxygen concentration within the atmosphere because suddenly my
head felt like it had submerged (despite my terrestrial position on the peer) as
my lungs filled with hydrogen; I could feel the hydrogen molecules enter my trachea.
The breath I inhaled at that moment in time was confirmation of my individual existence.
Down the road we passed a marsh where the algae was so photosynthetically
active that it seemed to be radiating a luminescent glow. This exquisitely
vibrant pallet that nature bestows before us is a gift for those who wish to
embrace magic. Approaching the sand and grass naturally lead me to remove my
sandals which instantly activated all of my senses as I began to embrace all of
the elements viscerally, cognitively and spiritually. The first step I took
from the land into the water brought about so much joy as I felt the waves rock
the sand beneath my toes and sweep away the tiny stones. This pattern of
constant change and renewal is a mesmerizing metaphor for interconnectedness among
all organisms and elements within the universe. As my footprints began to
dissolve with the flowing tides my awareness of unity brought peace to my soul
as I openly embraced the galaxy with every inhalation and exhalation. That day
I realized that I am an extension those same cosmic elements and my body is
simply a vessel for the journey.
Blog
Reflections
1) What
promotes human connection to nature?
I
currently work at the Hempyrean, which is an eco friendly clothing shop at the
forks that locally supports pesticide free, chemical free, fair trade, natural,
organic, antibacterial, and hypoallergenic food/ clothing. Our mission is to
raise awareness about the positive economic and social benefits of minimizing
our carbon footprint by using eco-friendly fibers that are sustainable for the
planet to produce. Focusing on a society that does not require poisonous chemicals to thrive allows us to
imagine a utopian world where organic resources cultivation is the primary goal
for our ecological survival. When more time is spent within nature we see individuals
express a deeper sense of gratitude for the gifts that the earth provides. By welcoming
the elements of nature into our daily lives we experience life as a reflection
of the earth’s well being instead of our general income.
2) What
promotes disconnection from nature?
The
mainstream media is by far the most powerful socioeconomic tool in the first
world fueled by ruthless corporate giants such as Monsanto and Shell
responsible for distributing information to millions of people. These selfish
companies (among others) strategically manipulate people by distorting their perception
of wellbeing to equate with their unnecessary and sometimes harmful corporate products.
This extremely intelligent method of control is achieved through product symbolism,
which is meant to reflect the social status of an individual. This complex web
is designed to trap vulnerable individuals who have no knowledge about the
current state of the world with little to no interest in pursuing questions
about the how the system is designed to function. “According to relative
depravation theory, people who are satisfied with their present condition are
less likely to seek social change (Rose, 1982).[12]”
Ignorance is comforting to those who prefer to be sedated by a temporary solution
regardless of the long-term consequences of their decisions. This negligent
behavior is a frightening social epidemic because it has removed the
environment from the equation of wellbeing and replaced it with money to look
something like this: Individual+ money = product. Individual + product =
happiness.
· William Kentridge: Felix in Exile 1994. Charcoal& pastels, stop
motion animation.
http://youtu.be/vF5cngcXqSs
http://youtu.be/vF5cngcXqSs
3) Is
there a danger to growing a disconnection from nature?
The most overwhelming
feeling in a time of danger is one of helplessness, which consumes my entire
being as I continue to unearth the truth about our current environmental crisis.
The most valuable tool of our technological genertion is the Internet because
it allows information to circulate internationally without corporate
interference or bias. The information I have gathered throughout university has
lead me on a quest to accurately identify and expose selfish corporations that
are heavily responsible for recklessly destroying the earth’s precious
resources. Instead of respecting the earth as an abundant source of life the
Western mentality entertains the notion of entitlement and righteousness for ones
own selfishness and greed. Blindly supporting organizations that exploit Mother
Earth’s has become socially acceptable behavior with zero criminal consequences
despite the serious damage our global ecosystems. Sadly, humans have come to embrace
this cold-hearted voice as the lexicon of the machine and have gone great
lengths to fuel the fire of this prodigious beast. As we continue to dance and
feast our lives away while the waves quietly rise[13],
and like moths to a flame, humans are advancing into a dangerous territory of
resource wars where our political and corporate leaders will delegate the
course of action for the entire world to endure.
4) Where
do your environmental ethics lie? Anthropocentric/ Biocentric/ Ecocentric?
I
strongly support an Ecocentric ideology when discussing environmental ethics because
it fully encompasses the wellbeing of our entire ecosystem including abiotic environmental
factors as well as the biotic organisms that exist within a wide range of
exquisite habitats across the globe. I have become increasingly aware of my
carbon foot print within these last 7 years and I have made respectable efforts
to live sustainably by pursuing a vegetarian diet, riding my bike to work,
supporting fair-trade, local/ organic markets and consuming less petroleum products.
I currently work at an eco-friendly clothing store called the Hempyrean where
we sell fair- trade, organic, herbicide/ pesticide free, hypoallergenic,
antibacterial clothing, cosmetics and health food. I have sincerely adopted the
role of an Eco Warrior through my lifestyle choices as well as fashion
statements within the last 7 years because just like the Lorax, I too speak for
the trees. As a visual artist I have made it my mission to depict the
delusional state of the world through performance and installation art. I have
also studied psychology, sociology, biology, ecology, art history, mathematics
and botany to further enhance my understanding about the evolution life on
earth through the journey of awareness that is human consciousness. I consider
myself to be an urban shaman conveying a Toxic Prophecy about our socioeconomic
addiction to oil. The traditional practice of Shamanism is a sacred Aboriginal ceremony
where chosen individuals enter the spirit world through chanting, singing,
dancing and fasting with intensions of collecting information from the creator
at a higher level of consciousness. This ritual of transformation is one of the
most amazing methods of transcendence that humans will ever experience in terms
of understanding the origins of life and universal interconnectedness. As a
student of art, science and evolution I have made many attempts to enter
trace-like states in order to attain universal consciousness to spiritually
connect with plants, animals and the elements to better understand life, death
and decomposition with deep underlying respect for Mother Earth. These
experiences are exactly why I consider Ecocentrism to be the most accurate
method of assessment when addressing environmental issues because everything on
earth and within the universe is connected.
 |
| Sarah Paradis: Toxic Prophecy, Trail Blazer Video Still, 2012. |
[1] Thomas A. Easton:
Classic Edition Sources: Environmental Studies, Fourth Edition. Section 38. Collapse: How Societies Choose
to Fail or Succeed by Jared Diamond p.185.
[2] Smith, Smith& Waters: Elements of Ecology:
Canadian Edition. Chapter 15.
Mutualism Categories: There are Many Types of Mutualisms p.316.
[3] David Suzuki& Ian Hanington: Everything Under
the Sun, Toward a Brighter Future on a Small Blue Planet. Chapter 6. It’s Getting Hot Down Here p.
138.
[4] Smith, Smith& Waters: Elements of Ecology:
Canadian Edition. Chapter 11.
Intraspecific Population Regulation: Intraspecific Competition p.237.
[5] David Suzuki& Ian Hanington: Everything Under
the Sun, Toward a Brighter Future on a Small Blue Planet. Chapter 5. Is the Economy… Stupid? p. 105.
[6] David Suzuki& Ian Hanington: Everything Under
the Sun, Toward a Brighter Future on a Small Blue Planet. Chapter 6. It’s Getting Hot Down Here p. 139.
[7] David Suzuki& Ian Hanington: Everything Under
the Sun, Toward a Brighter Future on a Small Blue Planet. Chapter 4. Science Holds a Mirror to
Existence p. 95.
[8] Smith, Smith& Waters: Elements of Ecology:
Canadian Edition. Glossary. G-4.
[9] Smith, Smith& Waters: Elements of Ecology:
Canadian Edition. Chapter 11.
Intraspecific Population Regulation: Density Dependence p.237.
[10] Gelpke& McCormack: A Crude awakening: The Oil
Crash. Docuramafilms. 2006- 2007.
[11] David Suzuki& Ian Hanington: Everything Under
the Sun, Toward a Brighter Future on a Small Blue Planet. Chapter 8. Healthy People, Healthy Planet
p. 215.
[12] Kendall, Murray& Linden: Sociology in our
Times, Fourth Edition. Chapter 20. Collective
Behavior: Relative Deprivation Theory p.644.
[13] Alive: Our Environment, A Duty to be Green.
Canada’s Health and Wellness Magazine. July 2007 Ann-Marie Metten: Ticking Time Bomb. P48.
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